The Occupation of Mexico, May 1. July 1. 84. 8Cover: Taking a Salteador Stronghold (West Point Museum Art Collection, U. S. Military Academy) Introduction The Mexican War (1. U. S. Army's first experience waging an extended conflict in a foreign land. This brief war is often overlooked by casual students of history since it occurred so close to the American Civil War and is overshadowed by the latter's sheer size and scope. Yet, the Mexican War was instrumental in shaping the geographical boundaries of the United States. At the conclusion of this conflict, the U. S. This newly acquired land also became a battleground between advocates for the expansion of slavery and those who fought to prevent its spread. These sectional and political differences ripped the fabric of the union of states and eventually contributed to the start of the American Civil War, just thirteen years later. In addition, the Mexican War was a proving ground for a generation of U. S. Army leaders who as junior officers in Mexico learned the trade of war and latter applied those lessons to the Civil War. ![]() Fighting took place over thousands of miles, from northern Mexico to Mexico City, and across New Mexico and California. During the conflict, the U. S. Army won a series of decisive conventional battles, all of which highlighted the value of U. S. Military Academy graduates who time and again paved the way for American victories. The Mexican War still has much to teach us about projecting force, conducting operations in hostile territory with a small force that is dwarfed by the local population, urban combat, the difficulties of occupation, and the courage and perseverance of individual soldiers. The following essay is one of eight planned in this series to provide an accessible and readable account of the U. ![]() ![]() S. Army's role and achievements in the conflict. Army Center of Military History by Stephen A. I hope that this absorbing account, with its list of further readings, will stimulate further study and reflection. A complete list of the Center of Military History's available works is included on the Center's online catalog. BROWNChief of Military History. The Occupation of Mexico. May 1. 84. 6- July 1. The Mexican War altered the United States and its history. During eighteen months of fighting, the U. Mexican American War The Battle of Buena Vista. The Battle of Buena Vista, also called Battle of Angostura. The Occupation of Mexico May 1846-July 1848. The Mexican War altered the United States and its history. During eighteen months of fighting, the U.S. Army won a series. Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory offers gamers a unique, squad-based single player game, enlisting players as the leader of an elite Allied force throughout a series of. The Chaco War (1932–1935; Spanish: Guerra del Chaco, Guarani: Cháko Ñorairõ) was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over control of the northern part of the. ![]() Welcome to the Military Gallery, publishers of Robert Taylor, Nicolas Trudgian, Simon Atack, and other leading aviation, marine, and military artists. Halo 2 is a 2004 first-person shooter video game developed by Bungie Studios. Released for the Xbox video game console on November 9, 2004, the game is the second. Tanks Territory: Command your tank to protect your military equipment from all kinds of enemy troops. One tank to rule them all! Tags: tank, shooter, war, action. S. Army won a series of decisive battles, captured nearly half of Mexico's territory, and nearly doubled the territories of the United States. Initially, three U. S. Army forces, operating independently, accomplished remarkable feats during the conflict. One force- under Brig. Zachary Taylor- repelled initial Mexican attacks at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, north of the Rio Grande. Subsequently, Taylor's force crossed the river and advanced into northern Mexico, successfully assaulted the fortified town of Monterrey, and- although heavily outnumbered- defeated Mexico's Army of the North at Buena Vista. Gen.) Stephen W Kearny led a hardened force of dragoons on an epic march of some 1,0. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, across mountains and deserts to the California coast. Along the way, Kearny captured Santa Fe in what is now New Mexico and, with the help of the U. S. Navy and rebellious American immigrants, secured major portions of California. Winfield Scott directed the third and decisive campaign of the war. Scott's army made a successful amphibious landing from the Gulf of Mexico at the port of Veracruz, which was captured after a twenty- day siege. Scott then led his army into the interior of Mexico with victories at Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec, ending the campaign and ultimately the war with the seizure of Mexico City. Yet, the Mexican War consisted of more than a series of conventional engagements, and no formal armistice was reached until long after the capture of Mexico City. Rather, the Army had to conduct a . The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. Army Field Manual 2. Article 4. 2 of the Hague Convention of 1. Thus, the Army found itself facing the more difficult mission of occupying a foreign country with a small force while battling capable and highly motivated guerrillas. Army designated small bodies of armed Mexicans who fought an irregular war against the Americans as . Army commanders also used the Mexican term rancheros to describe guerrillas. In the current study, the terms guerrillas and irregulars are used interchangeably. Indeed, the country's deep and often violent racial, ethnic, and social divisions further complicated the task of the occupying forces. Regional variations between northern and central Mexico, differences between the composition of Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott's armies and the threats they faced, and- not least the great difference in policies pursued by the two commanders meant that the U. S. Army conducted not one but two very different occupations in Mexico during 1. Strategic Setting Numerous factors affect the nature and structure of occupation as a military mission. The strategic and long- term goals of any occupier will shape the occupation policy. This policy should work toward an anticipated end state, which can run the spectrum from annexation to the restoration of independence. Primary responsibilities include enforcing the terms of the instrument ending conventional hostilities, protecting occupation forces, and providing law and order for the local population. Collateral missions may include external defense, humanitarian relief and in some cases- nation- building, which can be the creation of an entirely new political and economic framework. Economic conditions, demographics, culture, and political developments all come into play and affect occupation policy. Mexico's Political and Social Situation at the Onset of Hostilities Race and ethnicity greatly affected the history and development of Mexico. The descendants of native American Indians, who had 4 inhabited the region before the arrival of the Spanish in 1. European ancestry. Even before Mexico achieved its independence in 1. Spaniards and the criollos, or Mexican- born Spaniards, made up only 2. Mexico's population but controlled the country's government and economy. The remainder comprised Indians and mestizos, the latter group being of mixed European and Indian heritage. Criollo control continued after independence. Conservatives advocated installing a strong centralized government, having Catholicism as the official state religion, and limiting voting rights to the privileged few. Liberals proposed granting additional powers to Mexico's states, defended religious toleration, and supported the expansion of voting rights. To complicate the political scene, the liberals further subdivided themselves into purist and moderate factions, each with different agendas. As a result, the government in Mexico City remained in a seemingly constant state of disarray that contributed to economic stagnation and an ever- growing national debt. The Constitution of 1. U. S. Constitution. The Mexican federal government was composed of three branches: an executive branch with a president and vice president; a legislative branch, or general congress, comprising two houses- a senate and house of representatives; and a judicial branch with a supreme court and local circuit courts. In 1. 84. 6, for example, less than 1 percent of Mexico City's population of some 2. Even smaller portions of the population in outlying regions were able to vote. The ruling elite refused to extend suffrage to the remainder of the population and cautiously guarded its power and land holdings, which further alienated the Indians and mestizos. In 1. 84. 4, for example, a revolt against the central government led by Gen. Juan Alvarez soon turned into an Indian insurrection that spread a swath of destruction across 6. Mexico centered on Acapulco. Although the Mexican Army mercilessly repressed such outbreaks, underlying tensions seethed close to the surface as the war flared along the Rio Grande in May 1. State and local governments were organized in the same manner as the federal government. In fact, the criollos dominated Mexico at the state (provincial) and territorial level just as they did in the national capital. The provincial governments paid homage to the federal authority in Mexico City, but political instability and the distance between the capital and many of the states enabled the provincial governments to enjoy a wide degree of autonomy. As a result, U. S. In sum, the country's governing bodies were unprepared to deal with either internal or external crises. American Objectives In 1. Mexico's borders included more than one- third of the North American continent, with a population of slightly more than seven million people. North of the Rio Grande, Mexico's holdings extended from the western borders of Texas and the Arkansas River in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west (Map 1). The geography of this sparsely populated territory included portions of the jagged Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, the craggy Intermountain region, and the rugged Coast Range. In addition, stretches of largely uninhabited desert contrasted with potentially valuable agricultural assets such as California's Central Valley. Polk (Library of Congress) James K. Polk and his administration, which had several clearly defined goals at the onset of the Mexican War. Polk wanted to settle the disputed southern boundary between Texas and Mexico. Ever since winning independence from Mexico in 1. Republic of Texas had insisted that the Rio Grande constituted the border separating it from Mexico. Mexico, however, set the line some 1. Nueces River and the Rio Grande. When the United States accepted Texas's application for statehood in December 1. Texan claim. Looking westward to expand, the nation justified 8 its demand for land with the concept of Manifest Destiny, a belief that God willed it to control the entire North American land mass.
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